29.03.2005, 20:12
The Phalanx’s tactics were based on it’s weapons and formation. The men formed up with a spacing of one yard per man. Up to three and maybe four ranks of spear points could stick out through the front of the unit which was usually the 16 x 16 man Syntagma. The back ranks would hold their pikes at a forty five degree angle which helped deflect arrows and also gave the formation an imposing height on the battlefield. Since six Syntagma were arrayed in line, a 1536 man Taxei would cover a front of a little over 100 yards. In some circumstances the phalanx would close up to 8 ranks deep and halve each man’s space. This "locked shields’ formation made the phalanx ponderous to move but almost impossible to close with frontally. However this formation could only move forward and was unable to quickly react to flank threats.
Philip and Alexander’s Phalangites marched onto the battlefield in complete silence with pikes held upright. Once closer to the enemy the Pikemen would swing their shield into place with a loud clang. The Phalanx would finally level their pikes and then charge, yelling their war cry to Ares, ‘Alalalalai!" This sudden outburst of noise after a silent advance must have been unsettling to all but the most steady troops.
Even so this formidable mass of men with a seemingly impenetrable wall of Sarissas was actually a defensive force and not expected to deliver the decisive stroke in a Macedonian victory. Although the phalanx could be arrayed in depths up to 16 men deep, it’s strength was in it’s wall of spears creating a long barrier that pinned the enemy in place. This wall of pikes could cover the deployment of reserves or create a base from which the Macedonian cavalry could spring out into gaps that the enemy would create when trying to reach around to the flanks of the Macedonian line. Cavalry were unable to close with a well ordered phalanx from the front at all, and rarely even attempted to hit it’s flank or rear even when such opportunities were presented. The phalanx was accustomed to light troops moving in and out through its files to screen it from enemy skirmishers, or seek the protection behind the pike units.
Later descriptions of the phalanx give it the capacity to form into many shapes based on current threats. Thus the Phalanx could form a hedgehog for all around defense against cavalry, or it could open lanes and allow chariots to drive harmlessly through. Wedges could be formed , or crescents, in effect the phalanx was drilled to be able to execute these measures quickly and with a minimum of confusion. For a period of 30 years during Alexander’s and Philip’s campaigns, the Macedonian phalangites and Hypaspists became the most drilled and seasoned infantry the world had yet seen. Later generations of Phalanx’s retained the same armament and tactics but declined in quality of drill and experience becoming more ponderous and inflexible, especially in the hands of generals who miss-interpreted the lessons of Alexander’s victories.
The Phalanx was always susceptible to disorder on hilly or broken ground and especially so in "locked shield" formation. It is not clear whether the phalanx pushed their foes like a rugby scrum, or used their spears to pin the enemy front ranks while others behind attempted to pierce at the enemy unprotected faces and underarms. Polybius’ description of the opening of the battle of Pydna in 168 B.C. tells us how an allied Roman contingent of Peligni was overthrown by a phalanx, sticking their spears into their shields and pushing them back. But we’ll save this for later.
The Hypaspists
Unfortunately the armament of the Hypaspists (shield-bearers) is not well documented. However we are given plenty of descriptions of their role in the Macedonian army. They are, to say the least, some of the most flexible troops in any ancient army. They could form up in a phalanx with armor and pikes, or carry thrusting spears and javelins and skirmish with equal skills. They were constantly involved in raids or forced marches to pursue the enemy or grab key objectives. Philip taught the Hypaspists how to maneuver with their pikes as his adopted brother Iphicrates had taught his peltasts. The Hypapsists were capable of retiring in the face of an enemy then reforming and charging over eager pursuers. In Alexander’s great battles the Hypaspist regiments would form on the right flank of the phalanx, there superior maneuverability allowed them to keep closer to his decisive Companion Strikes into the guts of the enemy line.
The Three regiments of Hypaspists consisted of a thousand men each. The Premier Regiment or Agema (Guards) was composed the most seasoned veterans in the Macedonian army. Although lesser nobles sons that couldn’t afford horses would become Guardsmen, the regiments were kept up to strength by transfers from the phalanx. Later on in Alexander’s campaigns some the Hypaspists were given silver shields and armor which then caused them to be called the Argyaspids. These troops became as famous in antiquity as Caesar’s Tenth legion, or as Napoleon’s Old Guard is to us now.
The Macedonian Cavalry
The new Macedonian army was from the very first a "combined arms force". Unlike the Greeks who relied on their Hoplite Infantry almost totally, the Macedonians, up to the time of Philip, had always relied on the irresistible charge of their noble cavalry to carry the day. But Philip knew that cavalry alone could make little headway against the Hoplite shield wall. His efforts to create a solid infantry phalanx made his Companion cavalry even more effective, as he learned to use the phalanx as a screen for his horsemen or as a solid wall to pivot around and find the enemy flanks, or find gaps in their battleline that they could quickly dash through. The small squadrons of 200-300 horsemen in highly maneuverable wedges could quickly face in any direction an either exploit enemy weaknesses and flanks, or scurry back to the protection of the infantry if things got tight. There are many descriptions of the Macedonian wedges "breaking up" formations of much larger (and more heavily armored) enemies time and time again.
The main thing that set Macedonian cavalry apart from all their contemporary foes was their desire to close in hand to hand combat. During this period most cavalry forces had given up bows but many still used javelins as their main weapon and closed with hand axes or swords for the brief and uncomfortable "melees".
The Companions used the nine foot long Xyston made of stout cornel wood. Aside from the point the back end had a useful butt spike that was used when the spear shattered during the initial clash. Macedonian cavalrymen weren’t shy about using their Kopis (cutting swords) when their spears were rendered useless. A weapon which is vividly described as being able to cleave through a shoulder and lop off an arm clean.
When Philip inherited Thessaly during the "Sacred War" he also gained access to Thessalian cavalrymen who were the best horsemen in Greece. They were similarly armed as the Companions but they also seemed to use javelins equally. They preferred the Rhombus over the wedge as it was perfectly suited for their "Thessalian" tactics of fire turn in place and retire. Just like a wedge the Rhombus had an officer on each apex, when the formation right/left or about faced then all they had to do was follow the officer who now led the whole squadron.
Besides these "Heavies", the Macedonian army relied on numerous units of light cavalry as scouts, skirmishers, and battle cavalry. The most famous units of these were the Prodomoi (scouts) and Sarissaphaori (Lancers). The scouts regiments were crack units of Paeonian and other horsemen usually led by Macedonian Officers. Their role was to cover the deployment of the army, chase off enemy scouts, and find the enemy. In most of Alexander’s battles they fight in the opening stages of the battle to delay, harass with javelins, and break up the enemy charges. In the pursuit of defeated foes they were swift and relentless.
The Sarissaphaori squadrons were similar to the scouts, however they became known as the "Lancers" because they were armed with pikes. This unusual armament is unique to Alexander’s army, and, although described as effective overthrowing foes many times their number, no later army seems to have used this type of troop again.
After this period it did become common for heavy cavalry to adopt the longer spear which became known as the Kontos which is just another name for a cavalry pike. It is interesting that Alexander is depicted using a sarissa on horseback also, although this isn’t described in the written histories. It is possible that the lancers were Alexander’s "pet" regiment and thus he favored being depicted as one in paintings or on statues—much like later Cavalrymen would like to adopt the garb of the dashing Hussars. For some time these Lancers were thought to have been recruited from Thrace, where other Lancer cavalry originated, but they could also have been composed of Macedonians as well, or even mixed. The Macedonian army was a very diversified force, it’s hard to fathom with so many different languages and troop types the army could have cooperated at all!
The other Cavalry units in the army were composed of Thracian, Odrysian, and even some Illyrian horsemen. These were mostly skirmishing types armed with javelins, but many of them could stand up to a hand to hand fight on occasions. Alexander had some Greek light cavalry, and one unit of Greek heavy cavalry supplied to him for the Persian invasion. The rest of the cavalry were mercenaries, either light or heavy.
One part of the Macedonian army is often overlooked, these were the Royal pages and Grooms that formed ad hoc regiments on the battlefield. Similar to the role of Squires, these young men’s duties were to serve the Royal camp, and to learn the ways of becoming a Macedonian officer or guardsman. On the battlefield they hung back behind the lines and provided re-mounts for the heavy cavalry. On one occasion the pages rounded up and destroyed enemy chariots that had broken through the battleline., but normally they rounded up stragglers, delivered messages, and probably guarded prisoners.
The large and maneuverable Macedonian cavalry force was the perfect complement to the massive but slower moving phalanx. When Philip began his wars of conquest in 359 B.C. he started with 600 cavalry out of a total of 10,000 troops, by 331 B.C. at Gaugamela, Alexander was able to field about 7500 horsemen, which was almost exactly 25% of his total force, a massive amount of cavalry by Greek army standards.
Philip and Alexander’s Phalangites marched onto the battlefield in complete silence with pikes held upright. Once closer to the enemy the Pikemen would swing their shield into place with a loud clang. The Phalanx would finally level their pikes and then charge, yelling their war cry to Ares, ‘Alalalalai!" This sudden outburst of noise after a silent advance must have been unsettling to all but the most steady troops.
Even so this formidable mass of men with a seemingly impenetrable wall of Sarissas was actually a defensive force and not expected to deliver the decisive stroke in a Macedonian victory. Although the phalanx could be arrayed in depths up to 16 men deep, it’s strength was in it’s wall of spears creating a long barrier that pinned the enemy in place. This wall of pikes could cover the deployment of reserves or create a base from which the Macedonian cavalry could spring out into gaps that the enemy would create when trying to reach around to the flanks of the Macedonian line. Cavalry were unable to close with a well ordered phalanx from the front at all, and rarely even attempted to hit it’s flank or rear even when such opportunities were presented. The phalanx was accustomed to light troops moving in and out through its files to screen it from enemy skirmishers, or seek the protection behind the pike units.
Later descriptions of the phalanx give it the capacity to form into many shapes based on current threats. Thus the Phalanx could form a hedgehog for all around defense against cavalry, or it could open lanes and allow chariots to drive harmlessly through. Wedges could be formed , or crescents, in effect the phalanx was drilled to be able to execute these measures quickly and with a minimum of confusion. For a period of 30 years during Alexander’s and Philip’s campaigns, the Macedonian phalangites and Hypaspists became the most drilled and seasoned infantry the world had yet seen. Later generations of Phalanx’s retained the same armament and tactics but declined in quality of drill and experience becoming more ponderous and inflexible, especially in the hands of generals who miss-interpreted the lessons of Alexander’s victories.
The Phalanx was always susceptible to disorder on hilly or broken ground and especially so in "locked shield" formation. It is not clear whether the phalanx pushed their foes like a rugby scrum, or used their spears to pin the enemy front ranks while others behind attempted to pierce at the enemy unprotected faces and underarms. Polybius’ description of the opening of the battle of Pydna in 168 B.C. tells us how an allied Roman contingent of Peligni was overthrown by a phalanx, sticking their spears into their shields and pushing them back. But we’ll save this for later.
The Hypaspists
Unfortunately the armament of the Hypaspists (shield-bearers) is not well documented. However we are given plenty of descriptions of their role in the Macedonian army. They are, to say the least, some of the most flexible troops in any ancient army. They could form up in a phalanx with armor and pikes, or carry thrusting spears and javelins and skirmish with equal skills. They were constantly involved in raids or forced marches to pursue the enemy or grab key objectives. Philip taught the Hypaspists how to maneuver with their pikes as his adopted brother Iphicrates had taught his peltasts. The Hypapsists were capable of retiring in the face of an enemy then reforming and charging over eager pursuers. In Alexander’s great battles the Hypaspist regiments would form on the right flank of the phalanx, there superior maneuverability allowed them to keep closer to his decisive Companion Strikes into the guts of the enemy line.
The Three regiments of Hypaspists consisted of a thousand men each. The Premier Regiment or Agema (Guards) was composed the most seasoned veterans in the Macedonian army. Although lesser nobles sons that couldn’t afford horses would become Guardsmen, the regiments were kept up to strength by transfers from the phalanx. Later on in Alexander’s campaigns some the Hypaspists were given silver shields and armor which then caused them to be called the Argyaspids. These troops became as famous in antiquity as Caesar’s Tenth legion, or as Napoleon’s Old Guard is to us now.
The Macedonian Cavalry
The new Macedonian army was from the very first a "combined arms force". Unlike the Greeks who relied on their Hoplite Infantry almost totally, the Macedonians, up to the time of Philip, had always relied on the irresistible charge of their noble cavalry to carry the day. But Philip knew that cavalry alone could make little headway against the Hoplite shield wall. His efforts to create a solid infantry phalanx made his Companion cavalry even more effective, as he learned to use the phalanx as a screen for his horsemen or as a solid wall to pivot around and find the enemy flanks, or find gaps in their battleline that they could quickly dash through. The small squadrons of 200-300 horsemen in highly maneuverable wedges could quickly face in any direction an either exploit enemy weaknesses and flanks, or scurry back to the protection of the infantry if things got tight. There are many descriptions of the Macedonian wedges "breaking up" formations of much larger (and more heavily armored) enemies time and time again.
The main thing that set Macedonian cavalry apart from all their contemporary foes was their desire to close in hand to hand combat. During this period most cavalry forces had given up bows but many still used javelins as their main weapon and closed with hand axes or swords for the brief and uncomfortable "melees".
The Companions used the nine foot long Xyston made of stout cornel wood. Aside from the point the back end had a useful butt spike that was used when the spear shattered during the initial clash. Macedonian cavalrymen weren’t shy about using their Kopis (cutting swords) when their spears were rendered useless. A weapon which is vividly described as being able to cleave through a shoulder and lop off an arm clean.
When Philip inherited Thessaly during the "Sacred War" he also gained access to Thessalian cavalrymen who were the best horsemen in Greece. They were similarly armed as the Companions but they also seemed to use javelins equally. They preferred the Rhombus over the wedge as it was perfectly suited for their "Thessalian" tactics of fire turn in place and retire. Just like a wedge the Rhombus had an officer on each apex, when the formation right/left or about faced then all they had to do was follow the officer who now led the whole squadron.
Besides these "Heavies", the Macedonian army relied on numerous units of light cavalry as scouts, skirmishers, and battle cavalry. The most famous units of these were the Prodomoi (scouts) and Sarissaphaori (Lancers). The scouts regiments were crack units of Paeonian and other horsemen usually led by Macedonian Officers. Their role was to cover the deployment of the army, chase off enemy scouts, and find the enemy. In most of Alexander’s battles they fight in the opening stages of the battle to delay, harass with javelins, and break up the enemy charges. In the pursuit of defeated foes they were swift and relentless.
The Sarissaphaori squadrons were similar to the scouts, however they became known as the "Lancers" because they were armed with pikes. This unusual armament is unique to Alexander’s army, and, although described as effective overthrowing foes many times their number, no later army seems to have used this type of troop again.
After this period it did become common for heavy cavalry to adopt the longer spear which became known as the Kontos which is just another name for a cavalry pike. It is interesting that Alexander is depicted using a sarissa on horseback also, although this isn’t described in the written histories. It is possible that the lancers were Alexander’s "pet" regiment and thus he favored being depicted as one in paintings or on statues—much like later Cavalrymen would like to adopt the garb of the dashing Hussars. For some time these Lancers were thought to have been recruited from Thrace, where other Lancer cavalry originated, but they could also have been composed of Macedonians as well, or even mixed. The Macedonian army was a very diversified force, it’s hard to fathom with so many different languages and troop types the army could have cooperated at all!
The other Cavalry units in the army were composed of Thracian, Odrysian, and even some Illyrian horsemen. These were mostly skirmishing types armed with javelins, but many of them could stand up to a hand to hand fight on occasions. Alexander had some Greek light cavalry, and one unit of Greek heavy cavalry supplied to him for the Persian invasion. The rest of the cavalry were mercenaries, either light or heavy.
One part of the Macedonian army is often overlooked, these were the Royal pages and Grooms that formed ad hoc regiments on the battlefield. Similar to the role of Squires, these young men’s duties were to serve the Royal camp, and to learn the ways of becoming a Macedonian officer or guardsman. On the battlefield they hung back behind the lines and provided re-mounts for the heavy cavalry. On one occasion the pages rounded up and destroyed enemy chariots that had broken through the battleline., but normally they rounded up stragglers, delivered messages, and probably guarded prisoners.
The large and maneuverable Macedonian cavalry force was the perfect complement to the massive but slower moving phalanx. When Philip began his wars of conquest in 359 B.C. he started with 600 cavalry out of a total of 10,000 troops, by 331 B.C. at Gaugamela, Alexander was able to field about 7500 horsemen, which was almost exactly 25% of his total force, a massive amount of cavalry by Greek army standards.